Battle of Berlin

The Battle of Berlin, designated the Berlin Strategic Offensive Operation by the Soviet Union, was the final major offensive of the European Theatre of World War II.[f]

Starting on 16 April 1945, the Red Army breached the German front as a result of the Vistula–Oder Offensive and advanced westward as much as 40 kilometres a day through East Prussia, Lower Silesia, East Pomerania, and Upper Silesia, temporarily halting on a line 60 kilometres east of Berlin along the Oder River.[13] When the offensive resumed, two Soviet fronts (army groups) attacked Berlin from the east and south, while a third overran German forces positioned north of Berlin. The Battle in Berlin lasted from 20 April until the morning of 2 May.

The first defensive preparations at the outskirts of Berlin were made on 20 March, when the newly appointed commander of Army Group Vistula, General Gotthard Heinrici, correctly anticipated that the main Soviet thrust would be made over the Oder River. Before the main battle in Berlin commenced, the Soviets managed to encircle the city as a result of their success in the battles of the Seelow Heights and Halbe. During 20 April 1945, the 1st Belorussian Front led by Marshal Georgy Zhukov started shelling Berlin's city centre, while Marshal Ivan Konev's 1st Ukrainian Front had pushed from the south through the last formations of Army Group Centre. The German defences were mainly led by Helmuth Weidling and consisted of several depleted, badly equipped, and disorganised Wehrmacht and Waffen-SS divisions, the latter which ironically included many SS foreign volunteers, as well as many Volkssturm and Hitler Youth members. Within the next few days, the Soviets rapidly advanced through the city and reached the city centre where close-quarters combat raged.

Before the battle was over, German Führer Adolf Hitler and a number of his followers committed suicide. The city's defenders finally surrendered on 2 May. However, fighting continued to the north-west, west and south-west of the city until the end of the war in Europe on 8 May (9 May in the Soviet Union) as German units fought westward so that they could surrender to the Western Allies rather than to the Soviets. {| class="toc" id="toc"

Contents
[hide] *1 Background
 * 2 Preparations
 * 3 Battle of the Oder-Neisse
 * 4 Encirclement of Berlin
 * 5 Battle in Berlin
 * 5.1 Battle for the Reichstag
 * 5.2 Battle for the centre
 * 5.3 Breakout and surrender
 * 6 Battle outside Berlin
 * 6.1 North
 * 6.2 South
 * 6.3 Surrender
 * 7 Aftermath
 * 8 Commemoration
 * 9 See also
 * 10 Notes
 * 11 References
 * 12 Further reading
 * }

Background
Berlin operationBerlin operationStarting on 12 January 1945, the Red Army began the Vistula–Oder Offensive across the Narew River and, from Warsaw, a three-day operation on a broad front which incorporated four army Fronts.[14] On the fourth day, the Red Army broke out and started moving west, up to 30 to 40 km per day, taking East Prussia, Danzig and Poznań, drawing up on a line 60 km east of Berlin along the Oder River.[13]

The newly created Army Group Vistula, under the command of Reichsführer-SS Heinrich Himmler,[15] attempted a counter-attack, but this had failed by 24 February.[16] The Red Army then drove on to Pomerania, clearing the right bank of the Oder River, thereby reaching into Silesia.[13]

In the south the Siege of Budapest raged. Three German attempts to relieve the encircled Hungarian capital city failed and Budapest fell to the Soviets on 13 February.[17] Adolf Hitler insisted on a counter-attack to recapture the Drau-Danube triangle.[18] The goal set was to secure the oil region of Nagykanizsa and regain the Danube River for future operations, [19] but the depleted German forces had been given an impossible task.[20] By 16 March, the German Lake Balaton Offensive had failed, and within 24 hours a counter-attack by the Red Army took back everything the Germans had gained in ten days.[21] On 30 March, the Soviets entered Austria, and in the Vienna Offensive they finally captured Vienna on 13 April.[22]

Between June and September 1944, the Wehrmacht had lost more than a million men, and lacked the fuel and armaments needed to operate effectively.[23] On 12 April 1945, Adolf Hitler, who had earlier decided to remain in the city against the wishes of his advisers, heard the news that the American President Franklin D. Roosevelt had died.[24] This briefly raised false hopes in the Führerbunker that there might yet be a falling out among the Allies and that Berlin would be saved at the last moment, as had happened once before when Berlin was threatened (see the Miracle of the House of Brandenburg).[25]

No plans were made by the Western Allies to seize the city by a ground operation.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeevor2002194_31-0">[26] The Supreme Commander of the Western Allied Forces, U.S. General Dwight D. Eisenhower lost interest in the race to Berlin and saw no further need to suffer casualties by attacking a city that would be in the Soviet sphere of influence after the war.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilliams2005310.2C_311_32-0">[27], envisioning excessive friendly fire if both armies attempted to occupy the city at once.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERyan1966135_33-0">[28] The major Western Allied contribution to the battle was the bombing of Berlin during 1945.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMilward1980303_34-0">[29] During 1945 the United States Army Air Forces launched a number of very large daytime raids on Berlin, and for 36 nights in succession scores of RAF Mosquitos bombed the German capital, ending on the night of 20/21 April 1945 just before the Soviets entered the city.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcInnis1946115_35-0">[30]

Preparations
Further information: Order of battle for the Battle of BerlinThe Soviet offensive into central Germany—what later became East Germany—had two objectives. Stalin did not believe the Western Allies would hand over territory occupied by them in the post-war Soviet zone, so he began the offensive on a broad front and moved rapidly to meet the Western Allies as far west as possible. But the overriding objective was to capture Berlin.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeevor2003219_36-0">[31] The two goals were complementary because possession of the zone could not be won quickly unless Berlin were taken. Another consideration was that Berlin itself held useful post-war strategic assets, including Adolf Hitler and the German atomic bomb program.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeevor2002Preface_xxxiv.2C_and_pp._138.2C_325_37-0">[32] On 6 March, Hitler appointed Lieutenant General Helmuth Reymann commander of the Berlin Defence Area, replacing Lieutenant General Bruno Ritter von Hauenschild.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeevor2003166_38-0">[33]

On 20 March, General Gotthard Heinrici was appointed Commander-in-Chief of Army Group Vistula replacing Reichsführer-SS Heinrich Himmler.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeevor2003140_39-0">[34] Heinrici was one of the best defensive tacticians in the German army and he immediately started to lay defensive plans. Heinrici correctly assessed that the main Soviet thrust would be made over the Oder River and along the main east-west Autobahn.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilliams2005292_40-0">[35] He decided not to try to defend the banks of the Oder with anything more than a light skirmishing screen. Instead, Heinrici arranged for engineers to fortify the Seelow Heights which overlooked the Oder River at the point where the Autobahn crossed them.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEZuljan2003_41-0">[36] This was some 17 kilometres west of the Oder and 90 kilometres east of Berlin. Heinrici thinned out the line in other areas to increase the manpower available to defend the heights. German engineers turned the Oder's flood plain, already saturated by the spring thaw, into a swamp by releasing the water from a reservoir upstream. Behind plain on the plateau, the engineers built three belts of defensive emplacements<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEZuljan2003_41-1">[36] reaching back towards the outskirts of Berlin (the lines nearer to Berlin were called the Wotan position).<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEZiemke196976_42-0">[37] These lines consisted of anti-tank ditches, anti-tank gun emplacements, and an extensive network of trenches and bunkers.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEZiemke196976_42-1">[37] <sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEZuljan2003_41-2">[36]

On 9 April, after a long resistance, Königsberg in East Prussia finally fell to the Red Army.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilliams2005293_43-0">[38] This freed up Marshal Rokossovsky's 2nd Belorussian Front to move west to the east bank of the Oder river.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilliams2005293_43-1">[38] Marshal Georgy Zhukov concentrated his 1st Belorussian Front, which had been deployed along the Oder river from Frankfurt in the south to the Baltic, into an area in front of the Seelow Heights.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilliams2005322_44-0">[39] The 2nd Belorussian Front moved into the positions being vacated by the 1st Belorussian Front north of the Seelow Heights. While this redeployment was in progress, gaps were left in the lines and the remnants of General Dietrich von Saucken's German II Army, which had been bottled up in a pocket near Danzig, managed to escape into the Vistula Delta.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeevor2003426_45-0">[40] To the south, Marshal Konev shifted the main weight of the 1st Ukrainian Front out of Upper Silesia and northwest to the Neisse River.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEZiemke196971_4-1">[3]

The three Soviet Fronts had altogether 2.5 million men (including 78,556 soldiers of the 1st Polish Army), 6,250 tanks, 7,500 aircraft, 41,600 artillery pieces and mortars, 3,255 truck-mounted Katyusha rocket launchers (nicknamed 'Stalin's Pipe Organs'), and 95,383 motor vehicles, many manufactured in the US.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEZiemke196971_4-2">[3]

Battle of the Oder-Neisse
Main article: Battle of the Oder-NeisseSoviet artillery bombarding German positions during the battle for Seelow HeightsThe sector in which most of the fighting in the overall offensive took place was the Seelow Heights, the last major defensive line outside Berlin.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEZiemke196976_42-2">[37] The Battle of the Seelow Heights, fought over four days from 16 April until 19 April, was one of the last pitched battles of World War II: almost one million Red Army soldiers and more than 20,000 tanks and artillery pieces were deployed to break through the "Gates to Berlin" which were defended by about 100,000 German soldiers and 1,200 tanks and guns.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGregoryGehlen2009207.E2.80.93208_46-0">[41] <sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeevor2002217.E2.80.93233_47-0">[42] The Soviet forces led by Zhukov broke through the defensive positions, having suffered about 30,000 casualties, while the Germans lost 12,000 personnel.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeevor2002244_48-0">[43].

During 19 April, the fourth day, the 1st Belorussian Front broke through the final line of the Seelow Heights and nothing but broken German formations lay between them and Berlin.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeevor2002247_49-0">[44] The 1st Ukrainian Front, having captured Forst the day before, was fanning out into open country.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeevor2003255_50-0">[45] One powerful thrust by Gordov's 3rd Guards Army and Rybalko's 3rd and Lelyushenko's 4th Guards Tank Armies were heading northeast towards Berlin while other armies headed west towards a section of United States Army front line southwest of Berlin on the Elbe.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeevor2002312.E2.80.93314_51-0">[46] With these advances, the Soviet forces drove a wedge between the German Army Group Vistula in the north and Army Group Centre in the south.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeevor2002312.E2.80.93314_51-1">[46] By the end of the day, the German eastern front line north of Frankfurt around Seelow and to the south around Forst had ceased to exist. These breakthroughs allowed the two Soviet Fronts to envelop the German 9th Army in a large pocket west of Frankfurt. Attempts by the IX Army to break out to the west resulted in the Battle of Halbe.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeevor2002217.E2.80.93233_47-1">[42] The cost to the Soviet forces had been very high, with over 2,807 tanks lost between 1 April and 19 April, including at least 727 at the Seelow Heights.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEZiemke196984_52-0">[47]

In the meantime, RAF Mosquitoes were conducting large tactical air raids against German positions inside Berlin on the nights of 15 April (105 bombers), 17 April (61 bombers), 18 April (57 bombers), 19 April (79 bombers) and 20 April (78 bombers).Template:RAF staff

Encirclement of Berlin
9 March 1945 photo of Joseph Goebbels handing Iron Cross II class to 16 year old Hitler Youth Willi Hübner after capture of LaubanOn 20 April, Hitler's birthday, Soviet artillery of the 1st Belorussian Front began to shell Berlin and did not stop until the city surrendered: the weight of ordnance delivered by Soviet artillery during the battle was greater than the total tonnage dropped by Western Allied bombers on the city.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeevor2002255.E2.80.93256.2C_262_53-0">[48] While the 1st Belorussian Front advanced towards the east and north-east of the City, the 1st Ukrainian Front had pushed through the last formations of the northern wing of Army Group Centre and had passed north of Juterbog, well over halfway to the American front line on the river Elbe at Magdeburg.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeevor2002337_54-0">[49] To the north between Stettin and Schwedt, the 2nd Belorussian Front attacked the northern flank of Army Group Vistula, held by Hasso von Manteuffel's III Panzer Army.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEZiemke196984_52-1">[47] During the next day, the Bogdanov's 2nd Guards Tank Army advanced nearly 50 km north of Berlin and then attacked south west of Werneuchen. The Soviet plan was to encircle Berlin first and then to envelop the IX Army.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEZiemke196988_55-0">[50] Volkssturmmann with Panzerschreck, Berlin, April 1945The command of the V Corps, trapped with the IX Army north of Forst, passed from IV Panzer Army to IX Army. The corps was still holding onto the Berlin-Cottbus highway front line.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESimons198278_56-0">[51] Field Marshal Ferdinand Schörner Army Group Center launched a counter-offensive aiming at breaking through to Berlin from the south and making a successful initial incursion (the Battle of Bautzen) in the 1st Ukrainian Front region, engaging the 2nd Polish Army and elements of the Red Army's 52nd Army and 5th Guard Army.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKomorowski200965.E2.80.9367_57-0">[52] When the old southern flank of IV Panzer Army had some local successes counter-attacking north against 1st Ukrainian Front, Hitler gave orders which showed that his grasp of military reality was completely gone, and ordered IX Army to hold Cottbus and to set up a front facing west.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeevor2002345_58-0">[53] Then they were to attack the Soviet columns advancing north. This would supposedly allow them to form a northern pincer which would meet the IV Panzer Army coming from the south and envelop the 1st Ukrainian Front before destroying it.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeevor2003248_59-0">[54] They were to anticipate a southward attack by the III Panzer Army and to be ready to be the southern arm of a pincer attack which would envelop 1st Belorussian Front, which would be destroyed by SS-General Felix Steiner's Army Detachment advancing from north of Berlin.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeevor2002310.E2.80.93312_60-0">[55] Later in the day, when Steiner explained that he did not have the divisions to do this, Heinrici made it clear to Hitler's staff that unless the IX Army retreated immediately it would be enveloped by the Soviets; and he stressed that it was already too late for it to move north-west to Berlin and it would have to retreat west.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeevor2002310.E2.80.93312_60-1">[55] Heinrici went on to say that if Hitler did not allow it to move west he would ask to be relieved of his command.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEZiemke196987.E2.80.9388_61-0">[56]

On 22 April, at his afternoon situation conference, Hitler fell into a tearful rage when he realised that his plans of the day before were not going to be realised. He declared that the war was lost; he blamed the generals and announced that he would stay on in Berlin until the end and then kill himself.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeevor2002275_62-0">[57] In an attempt to coax Hitler out of his rage, General Alfred Jodl speculated that the XII Army, under the command of General Walther Wenck, that was facing the Americans, could move to Berlin because the Americans, already on the Elbe River, were unlikely to move further east. This assumption was based on his viewing of the captured Eclipse documents, which organized the partition of Germany among the Allies.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERyan1966436_63-0">[58] Hitler immediately grasped the idea and within hours Wenck was ordered to disengage from the Americans and move the XII Army north-east to support Berlin.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeevor2002310.E2.80.93312_60-2">[55] It was then realised that if the IX Army moved west it could link up with the XII Army. In the evening Heinrici was given permission to make the link up.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEZiemke196989_64-0">[59]

Elsewhere, the 2nd Belorussian Front had established a bridgehead over 15 km deep on the west bank of the Oder, and was heavily engaged with the III Panzer Army.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeevor2003353_65-0">[60] The IX Army had lost Cottbus and was being pressed from the east. A Soviet tank spearhead was on the Havel river to the east of Berlin, and another had at one point penetrated the inner defensive ring of Berlin.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEZiemke196992_66-0">[61] Soviet Katyusha multiple rocket launchers fire in Berlin, April 1945. This example is a BM-13N, 132 mm rocket launcher mounted on a Lend-Lease U.S. Studebaker truck.A Soviet war correspondent gave the following account, in the style of World War II Soviet journalism, of an important event that day—the capital was now within range of field artillery:<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELewis1998465_67-0">[62] On the walls of the houses we saw Goebbels' appeals, hurriedly scrawled in white paint: 'Every German will defend his capital. We shall stop the Red hordes at the walls of our Berlin.' Just try and stop them! Steel pillboxes, barricades, mines, traps, suicide squads with grenades clutched in their hands—all are swept aside before the tidal wave. Drizzling rain began to fall. Near BisdorfI saw batteries preparing to open fire. 'What are the targets?' I asked the battery commander. Centre of Berlin, Spree bridges, and the northern and Stettinrailway stations,' he answered. Then came the tremendous words of command: 'Open fire at the capital of Fascist Germany.' I noted the time. It was exactly 8:30 a.m. on 22 April. Ninety-six shells fell in the centre of Berlin in the course of a few minutes. On 23 April, the Soviet 1st Belorussian Front and 1st Ukrainian Front continued to tighten the encirclement, and severed the last link between the German IX Army and the city.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEZiemke196992_66-1">[61] Elements of the 1st Ukrainian Front continued to move westward and started to engage the German XII Army moving towards Berlin. On this same day, Hitler appointed General Helmuth Weidling as the commander of the Berlin Defence Area, replacing Lieutenant General Reymann.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-68">[63] Meanwhile, by 24 April elements of 1st Belorussian Front and 1st Ukrainian Front had completed the encirclement of the city.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEZiemke196992.E2.80.9394_69-0">[64] Within the next day, 25 April, the Soviet investment of Berlin was consolidated, with leading Soviet units probing and penetrating the S-Bahn defensive ring.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeevor2002313_70-0">[65] By the end of the day there was no prospect that the German defence of the city could do anything but temporarily delay the capture of the city by the Soviets, as the decisive stages of the battle had already been fought and lost by the Germans outside the city.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEZiemke1969111_71-0">[66] By that time, Schörner's offensive, initially successful, had been mostly thwarted, although he managed to inflict significant casualties on the opposing Polish and Soviet units, and slowed down their progress.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKomorowski200965.E2.80.9367_57-1">[52]

Battle in Berlin
Main article: Battle in BerlinThe fortified Zoo flak tower, situated next to Berlin Zoo, after the battle. In the foreground two destroyed IS-2 Russian tanks can be seen.The forces available to General Weidling for the city's defence included roughly 45,000 soldiers in several severely depleted German Army (Wehrmacht Heer) and Armed SS (Waffen-SS) divisions.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeevor2002287_6-2">[5] These divisions were supplemented by the police force, boys in the compulsory Hitler Youth, and the Volkssturm.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeevor2002287_6-3">[5] Many of the 40,000 elderly men of the Volkssturm had been in the army as young men and some were veterans of World War I. Hitler appointed SS-Brigadeführer Wilhelm Mohnke the Battle Commander for the central government district that included the Reich Chancellery and Führerbunker.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFischer200842.E2.80.9343_72-0">[67] He had over 2,000 men under his command.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeevor2002287_6-4">[5] <sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-SovietPrisoners_73-0">[g] Weidling organised the defences into eight sectors designated 'A' through to 'H' each one commanded by a colonel or a general, but most had no combat experience.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeevor2002287_6-5">[5] To the west of the city was the 20th Infantry Division. To the north of the city was the 9th Parachute Division.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeevor2002223_74-0">[68] To the north-east of the city was the Panzer Division Müncheberg. To the south-east of the city and to the east of Tempelhof Airport was the 11th SS Panzergrenadier Division Nordland.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeevor2002243_75-0">[69] The reserve, 18th Panzergrenadier Division, was in Berlin's central district.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEZiemke196993_76-0">[70]

On 23 April, Berzarin's 5th Shock Army and Katukov's 1st Guards Tank Army assaulted Berlin from the south east and, after overcoming a counterattack by the German LVI Panzer Corps, reached the Berlin S-Bahn ring railway on the north side of the Teltow Canal by the evening of 24 April.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeevor2002312.E2.80.93314_51-2">[46] During the same period, of all the German forces ordered to reinforce the inner defences of the city by Hitler, only a small contingent of French Waffen-SS volunteers under the command of SS-Brigadeführer Gustav Krukenberg arrived in Berlin.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeevor2002259.2C_297_77-0">[71] During 25 April, Krukenberg was appointed as the commander of Defence Sector C, the sector under the most pressure from the Soviet assault on the city.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeevor2002291.E2.80.93292.2C_302_78-0">[72]

On 26 April, Chuikov's 8th Guards Army and the 1st Guards Tank Army fought their way through the southern suburbs and attacked Tempelhof Airport, just inside the S-Bahn defensive ring, where they met stiff resistance from the Müncheberg Division.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeevor2002259.2C_297_77-1">[71] But by 27 April, the two understrength divisions (Müncheberg and Nordland) that were defending the south east, now facing five Soviet armies—from east to west, the 5th Shock Army, the 8th Guards Army, the 1st Guards Tank Army and Rybalko's 3rd Guards Tank Army (part of the 1st Ukrainian Front)—were forced back towards the centre, taking up new defensive positions around Hermannplatz.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeevor2002246.E2.80.93247_79-0">[73] Krukenberg informed General Hans Krebs, Chief of the General Staff of (OKH) that within 24 hours the Nordland would have to fall back to the centre sector Z (for Zentrum).<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeevor2002303.E2.80.93304_80-0">[74] <sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-81">[75] The Soviet advance to the city centre was along these main axes: from the south east, along the Frankfurter Allee (ending and stopped at the Alexanderplatz); from the south along Sonnen Allee ending north of the Belle Alliance Platz, from the south ending near the Potsdamer Platz and from the north ending near the Reichstag.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeevor2002340_82-0">[76] The Reichstag, the Moltke bridge, Alexanderplatz, and the Havel bridges at Spandau saw the heaviest fighting, with house-to-house and hand-to-hand combat. The foreign contingents of the SS fought particularly hard, because they were ideologically motivated and they believed that they would not live if captured.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeevor2002257.E2.80.93258_83-0">[77]

Battle for the Reichstag
See also: Raising a flag over the ReichstagBattle for the Reichstag.In the early hours of 29 April the Soviet 3rd Shock Army crossed the Moltke bridge and started to fan out into the surrounding streets and buildings.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeevor2003371.E2.80.93373_84-0">[78] The initial assaults on buildings, including the Ministry of the Interior, were hampered by the lack of supporting artillery. It was not until the damaged bridges were repaired that artillery could be moved up in support.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeevor2002349_85-0">[79] At 04:00 hours, in the Führerbunker, Hitler signed his last will and testament and, shortly afterwards, married Eva Braun.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeevor2002343_86-0">[80] At dawn the Soviets pressed on with their assault in the south east. After very heavy fighting they managed to capture Gestapo headquarters on Prinz-Albrechtstrasse, but a Waffen-SS counter-attack forced the Soviets to withdraw from the building.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeevor2003375_87-0">[81] To the south west the 8th Guards Army attacked north across the Landwehr canal into the Tiergarten.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeevor2003377_88-0">[82]

By the next day, 30 April, the Soviets had solved their bridging problems and with artillery support at 06:00 they launched an attack on the Reichstag, but because of German entrenchments and support from 12.8 cm guns two kilometres away on the roof of the Zoo flak tower, in Berlin Zoo, it was not until that evening that the Soviets were able to enter the building.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeevor2003380_89-0">[83] The Reichstag had not been in use since 1933 when it burned and its interior resembled a rubble heap more than a government building. The German troops inside made excellent use of this and lay heavily entrenched.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHamilton2008311_90-0">[84] Fierce room-to-room fighting ensued. At that point there was still a large contingent of German soldiers in the basement who launched counter-attacks against the Red Army.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHamilton2008311_90-1">[84] Finally, on 2 May the Red Army controlled the building entirely.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeevor2003390.E2.80.93397_91-0">[85] The famous photo of the two soldiers planting the flag on the roof of the building is a re-enactment photo taken the day after the building was taken.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESontheimer2008_92-0">[86] However, to the Soviets the event as represented by the photo became symbolic of their victory demonstrating that the Battle of Berlin, as well as the Eastern Front hostilities as whole, ended with the total Soviet victory.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBellamy2007663.E2.80.937_93-0">[87] As the 756th Regiment's commander Zinchenko had stated in his order to Battalion Commander Neustroev "...the Supreme High Command...and the entire Soviet People order you to erect the victory banner on the roof above Berlin".<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHamilton2008311_90-2">[84]

Battle for the centre
Front lines 1 May (pink = allied occupied territory; red = area of fighting)During the early hours of 30 April, Weidling informed Hitler in person that the defenders would probably exhaust their ammunition during the night. Hitler gave him the permission to attempt a breakout through the encircling Red Army lines.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeevor2002358_94-0">[88] That afternoon, Hitler and Braun committed suicide and their bodies were cremated not far from the bunker.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBullock1962799.2C_800_95-0">[89]. In accordance to Hitler's last will and testament, Admiral Karl Dönitz became the "President of Germany" (Reichspräsident) in the new Flensburg government, and Joseph Goebbels became the new Chancellor of Germany (Reichskanzler).<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilliams2005324.2C_325_96-0">[90]

As the perimeter shrank and the surviving defenders fell back, they became concentrated into a small area in the city centre. By now there were about 10,000 German soldiers in the city centre, which was being assaulted from all sides. One of the other main thrusts was along Wilhelmstrasse on which the Air Ministry, built of reinforced concrete, was pounded by large concentrations of Soviet artillery.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeevor2003380_89-1">[83] The remaining German Tiger tanks of the Hermann von Salza battalion took up positions in the east of the Tiergarten to defend the centre against Kuznetsov's 3rd Shock Army (which although heavily engaged around the Reichstag was also flanking the area by advancing through the northern Tiergarten) and the 8th Guards Army advancing through the south of the Tiergarten.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeevor2003381_97-0">[91] These Soviet forces had effectively cut the sausage-shaped area held by the Germans in half and made any escape attempt to the west for German troops in the centre much more difficult.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeevor2002385.E2.80.93386_98-0">[92]

During the early hours of 1 May, Krebs talked to General Chuikov, commander of the Soviet 8th Guards Army,<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-99">[93] informing him of Hitler's death and a willingness to negotiate a city wide surrender.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeevor2003391_100-0">[94] However, they could not agree on terms because of Soviet insistence on unconditional surrender and Krebs' claim that he lacked authorisation to agree to that.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDollinger1967239_101-0">[95] Goebbels was against surrender. In the afternoon, Goebbels and his wife (after killing their children) committed suicide.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeevor2003405_102-0">[96] Goebbels's death removed the last impediment which prevented Weidling from accepting the terms of unconditional surrender of his garrison, but he chose to delay the surrender until the next morning to allow the planned breakout to take place under the cover of darkness.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeevor2003406_103-0">[97]

Breakout and surrender
On the night of 1–2 May, most of the remnants of the Berlin garrison attempted to break out of the city centre in three different directions. Only those that went west through the Tiergarten and crossed the Charlottenbrücke (a bridge over the Havel) into Spandau succeeded in breaching Soviet lines.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeevor2002383.E2.80.93389_104-0">[98] However, only a handful of those who survived the initial breakout made it to the lines of the Western Allies—most were either killed or captured by the Red Army's outer encirclement forces west of the city.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEZiemke1969125.E2.80.93126_105-0">[99] Early in the morning of 2 May, the Soviets captured the Reich Chancellery. The military historian Antony Beevor points out that as most of the German combat troops had left the area in the breakouts the night before, the resistance must have been far less than it had been inside the Reichstag.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeevor2002388_106-0">[100] General Weidling finally surrendered with his staff at 06:00 hours. He was taken to see General Vasily Chuikov at 08:23. Weidling agreed to order the city's defenders to surrender to the Soviets.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeevor2002386_107-0">[101] Under General Chuikov's and Vasily Sokolovsky's direction, Weidling put his order to surrender in writing.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDollinger1967239_101-1">[95]

The 350-strong garrison of the Zoo flak tower finally left the building. While there was sporadic fighting in a few isolated buildings where some SS troops still refused to surrender, the Soviets simply reduced such buildings to rubble.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeevor2002409_108-0">[102]

Battle outside Berlin
At some point on 28 April or 29 April, General Gotthard Heinrici, Commander-in-Chief of Army Group Vistula, was relieved of his command after disobeying Hitler's direct orders to hold Berlin at all costs and never order a retreat, and was replaced by General Kurt Student.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeevor2002338_109-0">[103] General Kurt von Tippelskirch was named as Heinrici's interim replacement until Student could arrive and assume control, while there remains some confusion as to who was actually in command as some references say that Student was captured by the British and never arrived.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDollinger1967228_110-0">[104] Regardless of whether von Tippelskirch or Student was in command of Army Group Vistula, the rapidly deteriorating situation that the Germans faced meant that Army Group Vistula coordination of the armies under its nominal command during the last few days of the war was of little significance.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEZiemke1969128_111-0">[105]

On the evening of 29 April, Krebs contacted General Alfred Jodl (Supreme Army Command) by radio:<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDollinger1967239_101-2">[95] Request immediate report. Firstly of the whereabouts of Wenck's spearheads. Secondly of time intended to attack. Thirdly of the location of the IX Army. Fourthly of the precise place in which the IX Army will break through. Fifthly of the whereabouts of General Rudolf Holste's spearhead. In the early morning of 30 April, Jodl replied to Krebs:<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDollinger1967239_101-3">[95] Firstly, Wenck's spearhead bogged down south of Schwielow Lake. Secondly, XII Army therefore unable to continue attack on Berlin. Thirdly, bulk of IX Army surrounded. Fourthly, Holste's Corps on the defensive.

North
While the 1st Belorussian Front and the 1st Ukrainian Front encircled Berlin, and started the battle for the city itself, Rokossovsky's 2nd Belorussian Front started his offensive to the north of Berlin. On the 20 April between Stettin and Schwedt, Rokossovsky's 2nd Belorussian Front attacked the northern flank of Army Group Vistula, held by the III Panzer Army.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEZiemke196984_52-2">[47] By 22 April, the 2nd Belorussian Front had established a bridgehead on the east bank of the Oder that was over 15 km deep and was heavily engaged with the III Panzer Army.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEZiemke196992_66-2">[61] On 25 April, the 2nd Belorussian Front broke through III Panzer Army's line around the bridgehead south of Stettin, crossed the Randowbruch Swamp, and were now free to move west towards Montgomery's British 21st Army Group and north towards the Baltic port of Stralsund.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEZiemke196994_112-0">[106]

The German III Panzer Army and the German XXI Army situated to the north of Berlin retreated westwards under relentless pressure from Rokossovsky's 2nd Belorussian Front, and was eventually pushed into a pocket 20 miles (32 km) wide that stretched from the Elbe to the coast.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeevor2003353_65-1">[60] To their west was the British 21st Army Group (which on 1 May broke out of its Elbe bridgehead and had raced to the coast capturing Wismar and Lübeck), to their east Rokossovsky's 2nd Belorussian Front and to the south was the Ninth United States Army which had penetrated as far east as Ludwigslust and Schwerin.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEZiemke1969129_113-0">[107]

South
See also: Battle of Halbe2nd Lt. William Robertson, US Army and Lt. Alexander Sylvashko, Red Army, shown in front of sign East Meets West symbolizing the historic meeting of the Soviet and American Armies, near Torgau, Germany.The successes of the 1st Ukrainian Front during the first nine days of the battle meant that by 25 April, they were occupying large swathes of the area south and south west of Berlin. Their spearheads had met elements of the 1st Belorussian Front west of Berlin, completing the investment of the city.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEZiemke196994_112-1">[106] Meanwhile, the 1st Ukrainian Front's 58th Guards Division of the 5th Guards Army made contact with the US 69th Infantry Division of the First Army near Torgau, on the Elbe River.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEZiemke196994_112-2">[106] These manoeuvres had broken the German forces south of Berlin into three parts. The German IX army was surrounded in the Halbe pocket.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeevor2003350_114-0">[108] Wenck's XII Army, obeying Hitler's command of the 22 April, was attempting to force its way into Berlin from the south west but met stiff resistance from units of the 1st Ukrainian Front in the area of Potsdam.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeevor2003345.E2.80.93346_115-0">[109] Schörner's Army Group Centre was forced to withdraw from the Battle of Berlin, along its lines of communications towards Czechoslovakia.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeevor2003426_45-1">[40]

Between 24 April and 1 May, the German IX Army fought a desperate action to break out of the pocket in an attempt to link up with the German XII Army.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELe_Tissier2005117_116-0">[110] Hitler assumed that after a successful breakout from the pocket, the IX Army could combine forces with the XII Army and would be able to relieve Berlin.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELe_Tissier200589.2C_90_117-0">[111] However there is no evidence to suggest that Generals Heinrici, Busse or Wenck thought that this was even remotely strategically feasible, but Hitler's agreement to allow the IX Army to break through Soviet lines did provide a window of opportunity through which sizable numbers of German troops were able to escape west and surrender to the United States Army.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeevor2002330_118-0">[112]

At dawn on 28 April, the youth divisions  Clausewitz ,  Scharnhorst  and  Theodor Körner , attacked from the south west toward the direction of Berlin. They were part of Wenck's XX Corps and were made up of men from the officer training schools, making them some of the best units the Germans had in reserve. They covered a distance of about 24 kilometres (15 mi), before being halted at the tip of Lake Schwielow, south west of Potsdam and still 32 kilometres (20 mi) from Berlin.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEZiemke1969119_119-0">[113] During the night, General Wenck reported to the German Supreme Army Command in Fuerstenberg that his XII Army had been forced back along the entire front. According to Wenck, no attack on Berlin was now possible.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEZiemke1969120_120-0">[114] <sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeevor2002350_121-0">[115] This was even more so as support from the IX Army could no longer be expected at this point.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDollinger1967239_101-4">[95] In the meantime, about 25,000 German soldiers of the IX Army along with several thousand civilians succeeded in reaching the lines of the XII Army after breaking out of the Halbe pocket.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeevor2002378_122-0">[116] The casualties on both sides were very high. There are close to 30,000 Germans buried in the cemetery at Halbe.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeevor2002337_54-1">[49] About 20,000 soldiers of the Red Army also died trying to stop the breakout; most are buried at a cemetery next to the Baruth-Zossen road.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeevor2002337_54-2">[49] These are the known dead, but the remains of more who died in the battle are found every year so the total of those who died will never be known. Nobody knows how many civilians died but it could have been as high as 10,000.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeevor2002337_54-3">[49]

Having failed to break through to Berlin, Wenck's XII army made a fighting retreat back towards the Elbe and American lines after providing the IX Army survivors with surplus transport.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeevor2002395_123-0">[117] By 6 May many German Army units and individuals had crossed the Elbe and surrendered to the US Ninth Army.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEZiemke1969128_111-1">[105] Meanwhile, the XII's bridgehead with its headquarters in the park of Schönhausen, had come under heavy Soviet artillery bombardment and had been compressed into an area eight by two kilometres (five by one and a quarter miles).<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeevor2002397_124-0">[118]

Surrender
On the night of 2–3 May, General Hasso von Manteuffel, commander of the III Panzer Army along with General Kurt von Tippelskirch, commander of the XXI Army, surrendered to the US Army.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEZiemke1969128_111-2">[105] Von Saucken's II Army, that had been fighting north east of Berlin in the Vistula Delta, surrendered to the Soviets on 9 May.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEZiemke1969129_113-1">[107] On the morning of 7 May, the perimeter of Wenck's XII Army's bridgehead began to collapse. Wenck crossed the Elbe under small arms fire that afternoon and surrendered to the American Ninth Army.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeevor2002397_124-1">[118]

Aftermath
A devastated street in the city centre just off the Unter den Linden, 3 July 1945German women doing their washing at a cold water hydrant in a Berlin street. A knocked-out German scout car stands beside them, 3 July 1945.According to Grigoriy Krivosheev's work based on declassified archival data, Soviet forces sustained 81,116 dead for the entire operation, which included the Battles of Seelow Heights and the Halbe;<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKrivosheev1997219.2C220_125-0">[119] Another 280,251 were reported wounded or sick during the operational period.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKrivosheev1997219.2C220_125-1">[119] <sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Casualties_126-0">[h] The operation also cost the Soviets about 2,000 armored vehicles, though the number of irrevocable losses (write-offs) is not known. Initial Soviet estimates based on kill claims placed German losses at 458,080 killed and 479,298 captured,<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-CapturedPrisoners_127-0">[i] but German research puts the number of dead to approximately 92,000 – 100,000.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEM.C3.BCller2008673_13-1">[10] The number of civilian casualties is unknown,<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGlantz1998271_128-0">[120] but 125,000 are estimated to have perished during the entire operation.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEClodfelter2002515_129-0">[121]

In those areas which the Soviets had captured and before the fighting in the centre of the city had stopped, the Soviet authorities took measures to start restoring essential services.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBellamy2007670_130-0">[122] Almost all the transport in and out of the city had been rendered inoperative, and bombed-out sewers had contaminated the city's water supplies.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWhite2003126_131-0">[123] The Soviets appointed local Germans to head each city block, and organized the cleaning-up.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBellamy2007670_130-1">[122] Further, the Red Army made a major effort to feed the residents of the city.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBellamy2007670_130-2">[122] Most Germans, both soldiers and civilians, were grateful to receive food issued at Red Army soup kitchens which began on Colonel-General Nikolai Berzarin's orders.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeevor2002409_108-1">[102] After the capitulation the Soviets went house to house, arresting and imprisoning anyone in a uniform including firemen and railway-men.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeevor2002388.E2.80.93393_132-0">[124]

During, and in the days immediately following the assault,<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBellamy2007670_130-3">[122] <sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGrossmann200951_133-0">[125] in many areas of the city, vengeful Soviet troops (often rear echelon units<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeevor2002326.E2.80.93327_134-0">[126] ) engaged in mass rape, pillage and murder,<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeevorMay_2002_135-0">[127] <sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Rapes_136-0">[j] and despite Soviet efforts to supply food and rebuild the city, starvation remained a problem.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWhite2003126_131-1">[123] In June 1945, one month after the surrender, the average calorie intake of Berliners was still low as they were getting only 64 percent of a 1,240-calorie daily ration.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEZiemke1990303_137-0">[128] Further, across the city over a million people were without a home.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeevor2002419_138-0">[129]

Commemoration
1,100,000 Soviet personnel who took part in the capture of Berlin from 22 April to 2 May 1945 were awarded with the Medal For the Capture of Berlin.<sup class="Template-Fact" style="white-space: nowrap;">[citation needed] "Victory Banner #5", raised on the roof of the ReichstagThe Victory Banner to be used for celebrations of the Soviet Victory Day was defined by a federal law of Russia,<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-rg.ru_139-0">[130] on May 7, 2007, as a copy of the flag was raised on the Reichstag (with the hammer and sickle, and the inscription). This flag is not the first to be hoisted on the Reichstag, but is the first (and the only surviving) of the 'official' flags, explicitly prepared for that purpose, to be raised there.<sup class="Template-Fact" style="white-space: nowrap;">[citation needed]

Poland's official Flag Day is held each year on May 2, the last day of the battle in Berlin, when the Polish Army hoisted its flag on the Berlin Victory Column.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKutylowski2011_140-0">[131]